Everything about Scientific Journal totally explained
» For a broader class of publications, which include scientific journals, see Academic journal.:
For a discussion of the general structure and use of methods of communication in science, see Scientific literature.
In
academic publishing, a
scientific journal is a
periodical publication intended to further the progress of
science, usually by reporting new
research. Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as
Nature publish articles and
scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles that have been
peer reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality, and scientific
validity. Although scientific journals are superficially similar to
professional magazines, they're actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a
magazine. The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the
scientific method. If they're describing experiments or calculations, they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results. Each such journal article becomes part of the permanent
scientific record.
The history of scientific journals dates from 1665, when the French
Journal des sçavans and the English
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically publishing research results. Over a thousand, mostly
ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, and the number has increased rapidly after that. (D. A. Kronick, "History of Scientific and Technical Periodicals," 2nd ed. Scarecrow, 1976)
These articles can be used in research and
graduate education. Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and
seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. In a scientific
research group or
academic department it's usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in
journal clubs.
The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as
Nature,
Science,
PNAS or
Physical Review Letters, have a reputation of publishing articles which mark a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields. In many fields, an informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it'll select for publication. It is also common for journals to have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular country or other geographic region.
Articles tend to be highly technical, representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field and advanced students. In some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content.
Types of articles
There are several types of
journal articles; the exact terminology and definitions vary by field and specific journal, but often include:
- Letters (also called communications, and not to be confused with letters to the editor) are short descriptions of important current research findings which are usually fast-tracked for immediate publication because they're considered urgent.
- Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings which are considered less urgent or important than Letters
- Articles are usually between five and twenty pages and are a complete descriptions of current original research finding, but there are considerable variations between scientific fields and journals: 80-page articles are not rare in mathematics or theoretical computer science.
- Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that's the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data. Some journals now only publish this data electronically on the internet.
- Review articles don't cover original research but rather accumulate the results of many different articles on a particular topic into a coherent narrative about the state of the art in that field. Examples of reviews include the 'Nature Reviews' series of journals and the 'Trends in' series, which invite experts to write on their specialization and then have the article peer-reviewed before accepting the article for publication. Other journals, such as the Current Opinion series, are less rigorous in peer-reviewing each article and instead rely on the author to present an accurate and unbiased view. Review articles provide information about the topic, and also provide journal references to the original research.
The formats of journal articles vary, but many follow the general
IMRAD scheme recommended by the
International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (
ICMJE
). Such articles begin with an
abstract, which is a one-to-four-paragraph summary of the paper. The
introduction describes the background for the research including a discussion of similar research. The
materials and methods or
experimental section provides specific details of how the research was conducted. The
results and discussion section describes the outcome and implications of the research, and the
conclusion section places the research in context and describes avenues for further exploration.
In addition to the above, some scientific journals such as
Science will include a news section where scientific developments (often involving political issues) are described. These articles are often written by science journalists and not by scientists. In addition some journals will include an editorial section and a section for letters to the editor. While these are articles published within a journal, they're not generally regarded as scientific journal articles because they've not been peer-reviewed.
Electronic publishing
It has been argued that
peer-reviewed paper journals are in the process of being replaced by
electronic publishing, in its various forms.
One form is the online equivalent of the conventional paper journal. By 2006, almost all scientific journals have, while retaining their peer-review process, established electronic versions; a number have even moved entirely to electronic publication. Most academic libraries, similarly, buy the electronic version, and purchase a paper copy only for the most important or most used titles.
There is usually a delay of several months after an article is written before it's published in a journal and this makes paper journals not an ideal format for announcing the latest research. Many journals now publish the final papers in their electronic version as soon as they're ready, without waiting for the assembly of a complete issue, as is necessary in paper. In many fields where even greater speed is wanted, such as
physics, the role of the journal at disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by
preprint databases such as
arXiv.org. Almost all such articles are eventually published in traditional journals, which still provide an important role in
quality control, archiving papers, and establishing scientific credit.
Cost
Many scientists and librarians have long protested the cost of journals, especially as they see these payments going to large for-profit publishing houses. To allow their researchers online access to journals, universities generally purchase
site licenses, permitting access from anywhere in the university--and, with appropriate authorization, by university-affiliated users at home or elsewhere. These may be quite expensive, sometimes much more than the cost for a print subscription - although this reflects the number of people who will be using the license; a print subscription is the cost for one person to receive the journal, while a site-license can let sometimes thousands of people access it.
Publications by
scholarly societies, also known as not-for-profit-publishers (NFP), usually cost less than commercial publishers, but the prices of their scientific journals are still usually several thousand dollars a year. However, this money is generally used to fund the activities of the scientific societies that run such journals, or is invested in providing further scholarly resources for scientists, and thus the money remains in and benefits the scientific sphere.
Despite the transition to electronic publishing the
serials crisis persists.
Concerns about cost and open access have led to the creation of free-access journals such as the
Public Library of Science family and partly-open or reduced-cost journals such as the
Journal of High Energy Physics (JHEP). However, professional editors still have to be paid and PLoS still relies heavily on donations from foundations to cover the majority of its operating costs; resources that smaller journals don't often have access to.
An article titled "Online or Invisible?" has used statistical arguments to show that electronic
publishing online, and to some extent
open access, both provide wider dissemination and increase the average number of citations an article receives. Lawrence postulates that papers that are easier to access are naturally used more often and therefore cited more often. However, this is more an argument in favour of disseminating research online, rather than for
open access per se.
Copyright
In most cases, the author of an article is required to transfer the
copyright to the journal publisher. Publishers claim this is necessary in order to protect author's rights, and to coordinate permissions for reprints or other use. Many authors, especially those active in the
open access movement, find this unsatisfactory, and would prefer a situation in which they give the publisher an irrevocable license to publish, but retain the other rights themselves.
Even while retaining the copyright to an articles, most journals allow certain rights to their authors. These rights usually include the ability to reuse parts of the paper in the author's future work, and allow him to distribute a limited number of copies. In the print format, such copies are called reprints; in the electronic format they're called
postprints. Some publishers, for example the
American Physical Society also grant the author the right to post and update the article on the author's or employer's website and on free e-print servers, to grant permission to others to use or reuse figures, and even to reprint the article as long as no fee is charged. The rise of open access journals, in which the author retains the copyright but must pay a publication charge, such as the
Public Library of Science family of journals is another recent response to copyright concerns.
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